Undetected bioaccumulation of antimony and its potential endocrine- disrupting effects from long-term exposure to menstrual pads in reproductive age women: A critical review
Author(s): Onuelu JE, Demaki EW, Akhator JA, Imolede IO, Bamitale PE, Marvins RO, Gbegbaje JO, Agu CU and Kemi AP
Abstract: Antimony, a metalloid commonly found as a contaminant in menstrual pads, poses emerging concerns due to its potential bioaccumulation and endocrine-disrupting properties. This critical review synthesizes current evidence on the presence of antimony in menstrual hygiene products, its absorption through the vulvovaginal mucosa, and subsequent systemic bioaccumulation in reproductive-age women. Despite recognized toxicity, data on long-term, low-dose exposure from menstrual pads remain sparse. The review highlights mechanisms by which antimony may interfere with hormonal homeostasis, including oxidative stress induction and disruption of steroidogenesis. Notably, the unique anatomical and physiological features of the vulvovaginal area may enhance systemic uptake, raising potential reproductive health risks. Key knowledge gaps include quantitative exposure assessment, chemical speciation, and longitudinal epidemiological studies. This review underscores the urgent need for comprehensive risk evaluation and regulatory oversight to safeguard women’s reproductive health against chronic antimony exposure from menstrual products.
DOI: 10.33545/27074447.2025.v7.i2a.108Pages: 49-61 | Views: 666 | Downloads: 379Download Full Article: Click Here
How to cite this article:
Onuelu JE, Demaki EW, Akhator JA, Imolede IO, Bamitale PE, Marvins RO, Gbegbaje JO, Agu CU, Kemi AP.
Undetected bioaccumulation of antimony and its potential endocrine- disrupting effects from long-term exposure to menstrual pads in reproductive age women: A critical review. Int J Forensic Med 2025;7(2):49-61. DOI:
10.33545/27074447.2025.v7.i2a.108
